"Environmentalism and Sustainability in the Southeast Asian Plantation Industry (1930s-2000s)"

The paper discusses the long-term environmental and social damage created by the expansion of plantation agriculture (palm oil and rubber) in Southeast Asia (Malaysia and Indonesia) and the responses that it triggered locally and internationally. It starts with a summary and discussion of labor and land exploitation during colonialism. It analyses the impact of the expansion of smallholding since the 1930s, which started as a potentially more sustainable alternative to plantation but emerged as equally damaging to the local environment during the post-war period. It concludes by investigating the period between the late 1990s and the early 2000s when the plantation industry, specifically palm oil producers, became a significant target of environmental campaigns against massive deforestation. Under the pressure of Western buyers, the industry decided to transform the value chain by introducing sustainability standards and a certification system. As a result, land in the region became a space of negotiation between conflicting interests. On one side, local governments, companies, and smallholders prioritized their right to develop their economy by utilizing their national resources. On the other, environmentalists considered the tropical forest and plantations a common good to safeguard for the sake of the world's present and future generations. These actors grew increasingly influential, leveraging their superior skills in international negotiation and the use of social media for global communication, responsible capitalism, and lobbying. Unlike their Southeast Asian counterparts, they framed their narratives by projecting a clear idea of "the geography of the future" requiring "responsible policies" to preserve biodiversity and fight climate change, which affected the demand for Southeast Asian crops and their global competitive positions.